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HOW TO ANALYSE YOUR DATA/ 125 EXAMPLE 12: TOM Tom works part-time for a charity which provides infor- mation and services for blind and partially sighted peo- ple in the town generic nolvadex 10mg on-line women's health of boca raton. He was asked to find out how many people use the service and provide a few details about who these people are and what they do in life nolvadex 20mg online women's health clinic charleston wv. Tom de- signed a short questionnaire which could be adminis- tered face-to-face and over the telephone by the receptionist. Anyone who called in person or telephoned the centre over a period of a month was asked these ques- tions. If they had already completed a questionnaire they did not have to do so again. Tom did not have access to any computing facilities, so he decided to analyse the questionnaires by hand. He conducted a count of gender, age, occupation, postcode area of residence and reason for attending or telephon- ing the centre. From this information, members of staff at the centre were able to find out that their main custo- mers were women over the age of retirement. This meant that they were able to arrange more activities which sui- ted this age group. Tom found out also that one of the main reasons for contacting the centre was for more in- formation on disability benefits. A Braille booklet and a cassette recording containing all the relevant informa- tion was produced and advertised locally. It took Tom one month to design and pilot the question- naire, another month to administer the questionnaire and two months to analyse the results and write the re- port. Often you will need to find out if there is a connection between one variable and a number of other variables. For exam- ple, a researcher might want to find out whether there is a connection between watching violent films and aggressive behaviour. In multivariate analysis the researcher is interested in ex- ploring the connections among more than two variables. For example, a researcher might be interested in finding out whether women aged 40-50, in professional occupa- tions, are more likely to try complementary therapies than younger, non-professional women and men from all categories. MEASURING DATA Nominal scales To move beyond frequency counts, it is important to un- derstand how data is measured. In nominal scales the re- spondent answers a question in one particular way, choosing from a number of mutually exclusive answers. Answers to questions about marital status, religious af- filiation and gender are examples of nominal scales of measurement. The categories include everyone in the sam- ple, no one should fit into more than one category and the implication is that no one category is better than another. Ordinal scales Some questions offer a choice but from the categories gi- HOW TO ANALYSE YOUR DATA/ 127 ven it is obvious that the answers form a scale. They can be placed on a continuum, with the implication being that some categories are better than others. The occupationally based social scale which runs from ‘professional’ to ‘unskilled manual’ is a good example of this type of scale. In this type of scale it is not possible to measure the difference between the specific categories. Interval scales Interval scales, on the other hand, come in the form of numbers with precisely defined intervals. Examples in- cluded in this type of scale are the answers from questions about age, number of children and household income. Arithmetic mean In mathematics, if you want to find a simple average of the data, you would add up the values and divide by the num- ber of items. This is a straightforward calculation used with interval scales where specific figures can be added together and then divided.

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Following the tunnel- ling event discount 20 mg nolvadex amex womens health yeast infections, rapid movement away from the intersection point along the P curve prevents coherent oscillations of the hydrogen between the R and P curves buy discount nolvadex 20 mg women's health lemon zucchini bars. As such, the reaction is modelled in much the same way as elec- tron transfer in proteins (i. A key prediction of this theory is that hydrogen tunnelling can occur even when the value of the kinetic isotope effect 7, thus suggesting that (contrary to current dogma) kinetic isotope effects may be poor indicators of quantum tunnelling in enzymes. This is an important point, since static barrier models of hydrogen tunnelling suggest that hydrogen tunnelling does not occur when kinetic isotope effect 7. This indicates that detailed temperature dependence studies are required to demonstrate unequivocally that tunnelling is a feature of an enzyme cat- alysed reaction. The fluctuating enzyme model of hydrogen tunnelling can be divided into two reaction components: (i) a thermally activated nuclear reorganisa- tion step, and (ii) the hydrogen tunnelling event at the intersection point of the potential energy curves. This leads to three possible rate-limiting regimes in which either (i) nuclear reorganisation is rate-limiting, (ii) quantum tunnelling is rate-limiting, or (iii) both factors contribute to the observed rate. The value of the kinetic isotope effect is affected directly by these steps. When nuclear reorganisation is rate limiting, the kinetic isotope effect is unity (since this is independent of isotope) and reaction rates are dependent on solvent viscosity (i. In the quantum tunnelling limiting regime, the kinetic isotope effect is not dependent on solvent viscosity and is not unity (since tunnelling rate is a function of isotope). However, when both nuclear reorganisation and quantum tunnelling contribute to the 36 M. Reactant (R) and product (P) energy curves for distortion of the protein scaffold. Hydrogen tunnelling does not occur until the geometry of the protein is distorted so that the R and P curves intersect. Thus, the intersection point (X) is the optimum geometry required for hydrogen transfer. At the intersection point, transfer can be by the classical (I), ground state tunnelling (IV) or intermediate regimes (II) and (III). In regimes II and III, additional thermal activation (other than that required to distort the protein scaffold to the optimum geometry for transfer, i. Enzymology takes a quantum leap forward 37 observed rate the kinetic isotope effect is viscosity-dependent – as viscos- ity increases the nuclear reorganisation step becomes rate limiting, and thus the kinetic isotope effect tends to unity. In experimental studies, measurements of (i) increased viscosity or (ii) decreased temperature effects on the kinetic isotope effect may be used to discriminate between these possible regimes, since both would be expected to selectively perturb geometrical distortion of the protein. The vibrationally enhanced ground state tunnelling theory assumes that hydrogen transfer occurs entirely by quantum mechanical tunnelling. The model is therefore appropriate for those enzymes catalysing ground state tunnelling (see below). The model is likely to be incomplete for those enzymes where tunnelling occurs just below the saddlepoint of the energy surface (i. In the case where hydrogen transfer is by a combination of classical and quantum mechanical effects, the activation energy will reflect partitioning of energy into a wide range of modes within the protein, e. However, experimental verification of the vibrationally enhanced ground state tunnelling theory would demonstrate the importance of protein dynamics in enzymatic hydrogen tunnelling. By analogy, therefore, protein dynamics would also be expected to play a major role in those enzymes where hydrogen tunnelling is not from the ground state, but from an excited state of the substrate molecule. Experimental verification of a role for protein dynamics is thus a key milestone in developing theories for enzymatic hydrogen tunnelling – this verification is described below. Alternatively, the bovine serum amine oxidase data can also be interpreted in terms of a hydrogen tunnelling reaction driven by substrate oscillations. Thus, ambi- guity remains concerning the correct theoretical treatment of the bovine serum amine oxidase kinetic data. SCRUTTON complex temperature dependence of the reaction can be modelled in a variety of ways. Our recent studies on enzymatic C–H bond cleavage have, however, provided verification of vibrationally enhanced ground state tun- nelling theory and also, for the first time, proved the existence of a ground state H- and D-tunnelling regime in an enzyme molecule. Our kinetic isotope effect and temperature-dependent studies of the reaction catalysed by the bacterial enzyme methylamine dehydrogenase have revealed that the rate of reduction of the enzyme redox centre (tryp- tophan tryptophylquinone) by substrate has a large, temperature indepen- dent kinetic isotope effect. Reduction of this redox centre is a convenient way of following C–H bond breakage in this enzyme, since breakage of the bond and reduction of the cofactor occur simultaneously.

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Cech 102 WORLD OF MICROBIOLOGY AND IMMUNOLOGY Cell cycle and cell division has also been awarded the Passano Foundation Young sis purchase nolvadex 20mg without a prescription womens health kate beckinsale, the DNA must replicate itself nolvadex 20mg without a prescription women's health queen street york pa, so that each cell has twice Scientist Award and the Harrison Howe Award in 1984; the as much DNA as previously. Steel Cells undergoing division are also termed competent Award in Molecular Biology; and the V. Therefore, the cell cycle is divided into Heineken Prize, the Gairdner Foundation International Award, two major phases: interphase and mitosis. Interphase includes the Louisa Gross Horwitz Prize, and the Albert Lasker Basic the phases (or stages) G1, S and G2 whereas mitosis is subdi- Medical Research Award; he was presented with the Bonfils- vided into prophase, metaphase, anaphase and telophase. Interphase is a phase of cell growth and metabolic activ- Cech was made full professor in the department of ity, without cell nuclear division, comprised of several stages chemistry at the University of Colorado in 1983. During Gap 1 or G1 the cell resumes protein and wife have two daughters. In the midst of his busy research RNA synthesis, which was interrupted during previous mitosis, thus allowing the growth and maturation of young cells to career, Cech finds time to enjoy skiing and backpacking. Immediately following See also Viral genetics is a variable length pause for DNA checking and repair before cell cycle transition to phase S during which there is synthesis or semi-conservative replication or synthesis of DNA. During Gap 2 or G2, there is increased RNA and protein synthesis, CELL-MEDIATED IMMUNE RESPONSE • see followed by a second pause for proofreading and eventual IMMUNITY, CELL MEDIATED repairs in the newly synthesized DNA sequences before tran- sition to mitosis. The cell cycle starts in G1, with the active synthesis of CCell cycle and cell divisionELL CYCLE AND CELL DIVISION RNA and proteins, which are necessary for young cells to grow and mature. The time G1 lasts, varies greatly among eukaryotic The series of stages that a cell undergoes while progressing to cells of different species and from one tissue to another in the division is known as cell cycle. Tissues that require fast cellular renovation, grow and develop, the organism’s cells must be able to dupli- such as mucosa and endometrial epithelia, have shorter G1 cate themselves. Three basic events must take place to achieve periods than those tissues that do not require frequent renova- this duplication: the deoxyribonucleic acid DNA, which makes tion or repair, such as muscles or connective tissues. During be duplicated; the two sets of DNA must be packaged up into prophase, the DNA organizes or condenses itself into the spe- two separate nuclei; and the cell’s cytoplasm must divide itself cific units known as chromosomes. Chromosomes appear as to create two separate cells, each complete with its own double-stranded structures. The two new cells, products of the single original other and is called a chromatid. The nuclear membrane cellular organisms) divide through binary fission, eukaryotes then disappears. In eukaryotes, cell Fibers called spindles attach themselves to the centromere of division may take two different paths, in accordance with the each chromosome. Mitosis is a cellular division resulting in During the third stage of mitosis, called anaphase, spin- two identical nuclei that takes place in somatic cells. Sex cells dle fibers will pull the chromosomes apart at their centromere or gametes (ovum and spermatozoids) divide by meiosis. The (chromosomes have two complementary halves, similar to the process of meiosis results in four nuclei, each containing half two nonidentical but complementary halves of a zipper). Both prokaryotes and arm of each chromosome will migrate toward each centriole, eukaryotes undergo a final process, known as cytoplasmatic pulled by the spindle fibers. During the final stage of mitosis, telophase, the chro- Mitosis is the process during which two complete, mosomes decondense, becoming unorganized chromatin identical sets of chromosomes are produced from one origi- again. This allows a cell to divide during another process chromosomes, and the spindle fibers disappear. Sometime called cytokinesis, thus creating two completely identical during telophase, the cytoplasm and cytoplasmic membrane of daughter cells. Instead, the DNA exists loosely within the nucleus, factors or hormones that occupy specific receptors on the sur- in a form called chromatin. Prior to the major events of mito- face of the cell membrane, being also known as extra-cellular 103 Cell cycle and cell division WORLD OF MICROBIOLOGY AND IMMUNOLOGY teins involved in that phase are degraded, so that once the next phase starts, the cell is unable to go back to the previous one. Next to the end of phase G1, the cycle is paused by tumor sup- pressor gene products, to allow verification and repair of DNA damage. When DNA damage is not repairable, these genes stimulate other intra-cellular pathways that induce the cell into suicide or apoptosis (also known as programmed cell death).

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